Technipages

Tutorials and fixes for smartphone, gadget, and computer problems

Definitions

Encapsulation

By Mel Hawthorne

This is the process that data goes through when it's transmitted through a computer by way of protocols. There are different layers of protocols and each of them alters the data a little bit, changing it enough that it will pass the next layer and can then be sent via the network. On the other machine, this process is reverse, and the data is put back into its original 'shape' … [Read more...] about Encapsulation

Technipages Explains Encapsulation

Encapsulation works a little bit like paint does – as data passes through layers of protocols, it changes, little by little. Once it has passed through all of them, it can be transmitted via a network connection like the Internet. Once the data, layered as it is, reaches the other machine, the encapsulation process is reversed, and layer by layer, the data is put back together to the way it was. When that’s done, the data can be used, just like on the original machine.

This process is an important aspect of object-oriented programming – part of that is a ‘rule’ that some things and aspects of data should not be available to other objects. The data can still be moved through communication channels (in this case, usually a network), but it can’t be directly altered or even accessed while in motion. Once reversed, the data is back in its original state.

Common Uses of Encapsulation

  • Encapsulation is an essential aspect of OoP.
  • Data transfer puts data through an encapsulation process.
  • Encapsulation restricts direct access to an objects components and properties.

Common Misuses of Encapsulation

  • Encapsulation protects data against viruses.

Software Engineering

By Jennifer Spencer

Software Engineering is the use of a systematic, disciplined, and quantifiable approach to the development of large-scale software systems; in other words, the application of engineering principles to software development. Software engineering directly addresses the problems that too often arise in large-scale software development. Software engineering was introduced to … [Read more...] about Software Engineering

Technipages Explains Software Engineering

Software is more than just a program code. A program is an executable code, which serves some computational purpose. Software is considered to be a collection of executable programming code, associated libraries, and documentation. Software, when made for a specific requirement, is called a software product.

Engineering, on the other hand, is all about developing products, using well-defined, scientific principles, and methods.

Software engineering is the process of analyzing user needs and designing, constructing, and testing end-user applications that will satisfy these needs through the use of software programming languages. It is the application of engineering principles to software development.

Since the mid-60s, software writing has grown beyond the basic programming into a profession that requires skill to be able to maximize the quality of the software. Softwares over the recent years have evolved into program codes that require higher speed, testability, increased security, etc. Hence the need to create a giant umbrella that encompasses the intricate changes in the evolution of software programs which gave birth to the concept of Software Engineering.

In contrast to basic programming, software engineering is used for larger and more complex software systems, which are used as critical systems for businesses and organizations.

Common Uses of Software Engineering

  • I graduated with a major in software engineering.
  • Oracle has boasted of the best software engineering team in the tech space.
  • The software engineering concept continues with a study of a modular approach to creating computer solutions.

Common Misuses of Software Engineering

  • Their job in the software engineering department is basically to check for bugs in your code
  • Software engineering is nothing like a craftsman industry

X Window System

By Jennifer Spencer

A graphical, network-based windowing environment originally developed for Unix and Unix- like operating systems (and since made available for other platforms) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; currently, it is under continuous development as an open-source program by the Open Group, a Unix industry consortium. X (as the X Window system is known to UNIX users) … [Read more...] about X Window System

Technipages Explains X Window System

X Window System is an open-source software package for designing the human-computer interface on a computer or a network of computers. It divides processing between clients and servers that run on the same computer or different computers on the same network. X window system is also known as X by its users.

An X window system interacts with, the software of the computer controlling the video output of a network or an application displaying to the window of another display system, of the clients. However, the server for X resides on the local computer being used directly by the user instead of on a separate computer in the network, and this makes it possible for the client user to be either on the separate computer or on his computer.

X from inception unlike contemporary display-oriented software programs which required users to be used with an attached display device, X was designed to be used over network connections. So X could be running on a computer in a network, and it will display its user interface when accessed by another computer in the same network. In 1984, a merger of Stanford University, MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) aided by IBM (International Business Machine Corporations), it was originally designed for communications between X Terminals and UNIX workstations.

Common Uses of X Window System

  • X window system network protocol allows for both 2D and 3D operations by an X window system client application which might be running on a different computer.
  • There is no inbuilt audio function for the X window system, and compatible extensions can be adopted
  • The user interfaces being used X window system users is not mandated by it, rather by the individual programs running on its platform

Common Misuses of X Window System

  • X window system network features result in excessive complexity if only used locally, its recent version network capabilities can cause an undesirable performance hit
  • While using X  window system, administrators don’t manually have to edit configuration files

Osi Reference Model

By Jennifer Spencer

Abbreviation for Open Systems Interconnect Reference Model. An international standard for conceptualizing the architecture of computer networks, established by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), that improves network flexibility. The employs a divide-and-conquer approach, in which network … [Read more...] about Osi Reference Model

Technipages Explains Osi Reference Model

OSI reference model is a representation to understand how applications communicate on a network. IT professionals, through the model, can chart how a data is sent or received. What OSI reference model does is to allow the data transmission to pass over seven layers, each of the seven layers have their distinctive roles. Better put, any communication between people from two ends can be reduced to seven layers.

Each of the layers has its; each function and that’s all the layer does. All the seven layers are powered by hardwares which ensures a signal is sent over the network. From the top of the stack of layers to the bottom, they are: application layer, presentation layer, session layer, transport layer, network layer, data link layer, and physical layer.

The model makes use of layers to understand what is going on in a particular system, if there was to be any issue, it helps the IT professional to pinpoint the source of the problem.

OSI reference model was adopted by the International Standards Organization (ISO) in 1984. Before this, it was being developed by some computer and telecommunications company in 1983. When the model was being developed, the aim was to provide a set of design standards for equipment hardware they could communicate.

Common Uses of Osi Reference Model

  • For IT professionals, the seven layers refer to the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, which is a conceptual framework.
  • Most of the description of the OSI reference model go from top to bottom, with the numbers descending from layer 7 up till next layer 1.
  • OSI reference model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards Organisation

Common Misuses of Osi Reference Model

  • The OSI reference models were not intended as a basis for developing universally accepted networking protocol.
  • OSI reference models have its equivalent of IP and TCP

Binary Notation

By Jennifer Spencer

The binary notation a method of representing numbers that employ a base (radix) of 2; therefore, there are only two possible values (0 and 1). Binary notation differs from the notation systems people prefer; these have bases of 10 (decimal numbers), 12 (measurements in feet and inches), or 60 (minutes and hours). Binary notation shares one characteristic in common with more … [Read more...] about Binary Notation

Technipages Explains Binary Notation

Binary is a base-2 number system, which adopts the use of two digits (0 & 1). It is a system used at the crux of all digital computers, enabling them to encode information, perform arithmetic operations, and carry out logical control processes.

The modern binary notation system was studied in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries by Thomas Harriot, Juan Caramuel Lobkowitz, and Gottfried Leibniz. However, methods related to binary numbers have appeared earlier in multiple cultures, including ancient Egypt, China, and India.

Using two digits as opposed to, say, the familiar ten digits used in decimal systems (0 to 9) enables hardware to be easily implemented via a simple ‘on’ or ‘off’ circuit states or logic gates. This is the basis for all digital systems.

To understand binary values imagine each digit (or ‘bit’) of the binary notation as representing an increasing power of 2 – with the rightmost digit representing 20, the next representing 21, then 22 and so on.

For each bit, the 1 or 0 signifies whether the value of the increasing power of two summates towards the number’s total.

Common Uses of Binary Notation

  • The very first message is the numbers in sequence 1 to 10 in binary notation.
  • You can erase this feature, by arranging that ‘n’ is expanded in binary notation
  • Binary notation is popularly used in computer languages.

Common Misuses of Binary Notation

  • A value of 0 and 1 is not represented internally by binary notation
  • In binary notation, there exist numbers other than 0 and 1

Apache

By Jennifer Spencer

Apache is a popular open-source Web server that currently powers more than half of all websites. Originally developed by programmers who were using a Web server daemon called httpd, developed at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA). These programmers fixed errors in httpd and modified it by releasing a series of software patches. Over time, they had … [Read more...] about Apache

Technipages Explains Apache

Apache is an HTTP based server development and management software which is currently free and open source. Apache handles Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) data requests through the Universal Resource Locator(URL). URLs are simply the name of a website that clients enter into Web browers to locate a Web page.The HTTP protocol is the internet standard data transfer protocol for Web pages, so when URL requests are made to an Apache server, the Apache server will handle the HTTP request and return the requested Web pages.

Apache can be used alongside with plugins or add-on extensions to improve the performance. Beyond server development, Apache can also be used to host websites

Its first release was on the 25th of August, 1995. Before this, initial development began in February 1993, the aim of the eight pioneering engineers was to enhance the NCSA(National Center for Supercomputing Applications) HTTPd daemon, their collision was what formed the apache group now The Apache Software Foundation.

There have been several notions as to the coinage of the word ”Apache”; however the foundation claims that “Apache” was chosen out of respect for the various Native American nations known for their endurance and intelligence in war planning.

Common Uses of Apache

  • Apache being open-source boasts of a vibrant and teeming community of dedicated programmers, ever ready to tackle challenges.
  • Apache developers always tackle security breaches as soon as they are reported.
  • The selling point of Apache is its ability to use different add-ons and plugins extensions which improves the performance of the software.

Common Misuses of Apache

  • Apache coinage for The Apache Software Foundation was influenced because the software started with patches
  • Apache is not one of the most used software for the development of softwares.

Recursion

By Jennifer Spencer

In programming, a program module or subroutine that calls itself to perform an iterative operation; in other words, a pure expression repeats itself to achieve a much more complex operation. The Principle of Recursion is illustrated by Fibonacci numbers, a number series in which the first two terms are 1; successive terms are given by summing the two previous terms (1,1, 2, … [Read more...] about Recursion

Technipages Explains Recursion

Recursion is a method of solving problems in programming, in which a problem is broken down into smaller units of problems and solved individually. So the first solution is dependent on the smaller solutions got from, the more minor problems. Recursions aids problem solving, as a question is solved on its terms.

It is best illustrated with the Russian Matryoshka dolls, which is a set of dolls encased in a bigger doll; every piece of doll is a direct replica of the succeeding or preceding doll except smaller. So every doll is a small or more significant version of the other. Recursive programming is based on this principle in which a problem is tackled by breaking it down into more minor problems.

Recursion can be traced back to 1958, John McCarthy was the first to utilize the principle of Recursion in programming, and this can be found on his work on LISP. LISP was the first programming language to feature recursive functions as we have them today. McCarthy’s work was inspired by the works of Alonzo Church, which were two decades prior. Notable mentions associated with recursion can also be dated back to Dedekind’s work on Natural numbers in 1888. Rozsa Peter presented on recursive functions in 1932 at International Congress of Mathematicians in Zurich in 1932.

Common Uses of Recursion

  • Recursion helps in tackling problems as it addresses a problem on its terms from breaking the problem down to smaller problems
  • A better way to tackle problems would be through Recursion because it widens one’s perspective on the problem at hand
  • In Recursion, the new set of problems are replicas of each other, and the problems are each solved on their own.

Common Misuses of Recursion

  • Recursion doesn’t tackle problems even though the problem is broken down to tackled on a smaller scale
  • Recursion only simplifies a problem, and it does not answer it.

Reusability

By Jennifer Spencer

Reusability in computer programming is the measurement of the likelihood that a given unit of code can be successfully incorporated into another program. Computer programming languages offer varying degrees of reusability. In structured programming languages, programmers develop code libraries that contain frequently used routines, such as those related to opening a window and … [Read more...] about Reusability

Technipages Explains Reusability

Reusability is the quality of a code being used in different platforms for multiple functions. The reusability of code is based on the programming philosophy, which emphasizes a programmer is not repeating himself. The philosophy justifies that every piece of knowledge must have a single unambiguous representation within a system. Reusability of code is possible by some features of codes, one of such features is Inheritance, which is all about a class being able to use the base class function and members, other methods are functions libraries.
Asides these, the existing code could be broken down into modules, the modules must be cohesive, i.e. the ability of two or more modules to work together. For the breaking into modules to work, the modules must be able to function independently.
For a code to be reusable, it means the code has been written in a well-structured way, easy to maintain and it is clean. It all comes down to the simplicity of code, that is, the ability of non-authors of native code to easily understand the properties of the written code.

Common Uses of Reusability

  • The reusability of a code hinges on the ability of other programmers to be able to look at the code and understand it and its properties
  • Reusability is the quality of a code being used in different platforms for multiple functions
  • For reusability to work, a known method is known as modularization, wherein a code is broken into modules.

Common Misuses of Reusability

  • When reusability is applied to code or program, it is compulsory that the code is a closed source programming
  • For reusability to work, it is not compulsory the code is broken into modules

CSS

By Jennifer Spencer

Acronym for Cascading Style Sheet, It is a World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) standard for style sheets capable of indicating presentation formats (such as fonts, font sizes, and paragraph alignment) for HTML elements. Using syntax, Web authors can incorporate style statements using HTML 4.0’s style attribute, a separate style area (using the STYLE element) within the document’s … [Read more...] about CSS

Technipages Explains CSS

CSS, an abbreviation for Cascading style sheet is used to describe how documents written in mark up languages like HTML should appear on the screen of different types of devices either on a small screen, big screen or even printers. It also works for any XML based mark-up language. CSS controls variables on a webpage such as a font, font colors, spacing and textures.

CSS was developed to enhance the separation of presentation and content of webpages. It can control the layout for quite some webpages at the same time. With CSS, it allows multiple pages to share the formatting information, and this minimizes repetition in the structural component of the documents. So, therefore, reducing the size of file transfer causing pages to load faster.

In the year 1996, the W3C (World Wide Web Consortium) introduced CSS, because, before this, development of large websites became long and expensive due to the style information being added to every single page of the website. With HTML being in use, the variables on a webpage were being described within the HTML. CSS was introduced to solve this problem.

Common Uses of CSS

  • CSS works on HTML and also on any XML based mark up language
  • CSS is the language for describing the presentation of web pages, and these include colors, fonts, and layouts
  • The separation of HTML from CSS makes it easier to maintain sites, share style sheets across pages, and design pages to individual tastes

Common Misuses of CSS

  • A typography CSS file can not define your typefaces, sizes, leading, kerning, and possibly even color
  • CSS does not  replace any part of HTML, and it is not even customizable

Microsoft Windows 95

By Jennifer Spencer

A hybrid 16/32-bit operating system for Intel microprocessors that takes full advantage of the processing capabilities of Intel 80486 and Pentium microprocessors, while retaining downward compatibility with Windows 3.1 programs. Compared to Microsoft Windows 3.1, Windows 95 offers a redesigned graphical user interface (GUI) that enhances ease of learning as well as … [Read more...] about Microsoft Windows 95

Technipages Explains Microsoft Windows 95

Windows system 95 is an operating system developed by Microsoft, and the system runs with MS-DOS. It is no longer a graphic user interface but now a complete operational system. The windows system 95 supports a RAM of up to 480MB. The codename for the project was Chicago.

Windows system 95 succeeded windows 3x. Improvements made to the windows 3x include the windows control, its notable plug and play feature, improved from 16-bit to 32-bit operating system, the inclusion of a start button, the introduction of the taskbar amidst many other things. The upgrade to 32bits was one of the most notable of the windows system 95. The improved 32-bits operating system allowed for far better user experience; this was owing to the larger main memory spaces and usage of faster CPUs.

The windows system 95 was initially released on August 24, 1995. On December 31, 2001, Microsoft terminated its support for Windows 95 and based on Microsoft Lifestyle Policy, and it was termed an obsolete product. The release of Windows system 95 was the biggest release by Windows.

Common Uses of Microsoft Windows 95

  • Windows system 95 is not a true 32-bit operating system (like OS/2 Warp or Microsoft’s own Microsoft Windows NT); nevertheless, users appreciate not having to upgrade their applications.
  • In Windows 95 and 98, you can boot into MS-DOS instead of Windows if you need to run MS-DOS for older programs.
  • Follow the instructions below to allow the computer to boot into Windows 95 or Windows 98 instead of MS/DOS

Common Misuses of Microsoft Windows 95

  • Before the advent of windows system 95, there were the 32-bits operating systems in operation
  • Windows system 95 was not designed to be maximally compatible with existing MS-DOS and 16-bits Windows programs and device drivers